1.1. Agriculture

The fertile land is found along the banks of the rivers or salt-water creeks in the neighbourhood of the sea; but the soil is generally poor, consisting in great measure of a stiff ferruginous clay, often mixed with gravel. Neither wheat nor cotton is grown. There are several cocoanut plantations in the District, and hemp is grown by the fishermen for net-making. In 1876-77, rice occupied 143,636 acres, and in 1883-84, 166,904 acres. The better kinds of rice land produce also second crops of some description of pulse or vegetable. By far the greater proportion of the food crops consist of inferior grains, as harik (Paspalum scrobiculatum), 369,011 acres in 1883-84; ragi(Eleusine corocana), 292,464 acres; and wari (Panicum miliaceum). These coarse grains are grown on warkas soil in the uplands, light and poor. The warkas lands may be divided into the more level parts, mal, where the plough can be used; and the steeper slopes, dongri, admitting only of cultivation by manual labour. The best of the poorer soils bear crops for five or six successive years, and then require a fallow of from three to twelve years. The land tenures of Ratnagiri differ from that of Bombay generally, in that there is a class of large landholders, called khots, in the position of middle-men between Government and the actual cultivators. Nearly one-half of the whole number of villages in the District are held on the khoti tenure, under which the khot makes himself responsible for the payment of the assessment. Some of the khoti grants date back to the time of the Bijapur kings, and were made to Muhammadans, Marathas, and Hindus alike.

1.2. Natural Calamities

Since the beginning of British rule there has been no year of distress so severe and generals to amount to famine. Of only two of the older famines, those of 1790 and 1802-03, does any information remain.

2.1. History

These rules,which are referred to in the article on BHAGALPUR DISTRICT, were incorporated in Regulation 1. of 1796, so that Cleveland has a fair claim to be considered the author of the Non-Regulation system. It followed, however, from confirming the Paharias in possession of the hills, that disputes arose between them and the Hindu zamindars of the plains as to the right of grazing cattle and cutting timber along the lower slopes. That the hills had really or nominally belonged to the zamindars there can be no doubt; but the troubles following the British accession, and shortly afterwards the great famine of 1769-70, had weakened or destroyed their control. Cleveland practically assumed possession of the hills on behalf of Government; they were excluded from the Permanent Settlement in 1793; and finally in 1823, the Government by Resolution declared its proprietary right in the hills, and ordered that the tract covered by this declaration should be demarcated.

2.2. Agriculture

Rice forms the staple food-grain of the District. Jaran or aman rice, the winter crop of the year, is of two kinds—bao which is sown broadcast; and ropa dhan, which is transplanted; of these, forty varieties are named. In the alluvial strip of country which runs along the eastern boundary of the District, rice is largely cultivated; and the lower slopes of the ridges in the undulating tract, as well as the swampy ground between those ridges, are also sown with rice. Level terraces are cut out of the hill sides which thus present the appearance of a series of steps varying from one to five feet in height. These rice terraces are flooded as soon as possible after the rains set in, small banks being left round the edge of each plot to hold the water. Among the other crops of the District are millets, wheat, barley, maize, various pulses and oil-seeds, jute, flax, sugar-cane (of which four varieties are distinguished) cotton, and indigo. There are two seasons for sowing indigo: the spring sowings are put into the ground in March, and reaped in June; and the autumn or October sowings are also cut in the following June.

3.1. Agriculture

The bulk of the Satara landholders are Maratha Kunbis. But the best class of husbandmen are the Jains of the south and south-west of the District. In the east of the District, the landholders are said to be only moderately hard-working; and the richer soils in the west are said to suffer from being cropped several years in succession without fallow. At the same time, certain parts of the District show notable instances of skill and enterprise. Satara suffered from the famine of 1876-78; and the indebtedness of the people to the money-lenders has demanded special steps to be taken to preserve their position as peasant proprietors by the introduction of the Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act. The soils of the District belong to three main classes, red in the hills, and black and lightcoloured in the plains. The black soil, especially along the valley of the Kistna and its tributaries, is very fertile yielding two crops a year.

Joar(Sorghum vulgare) and bajra (Penicillar spicata), the staple food of the people, occupy nearly half the cultivated area. Rice-fields are found only in the west, along river banks. In the south and east, cotton is grown, most of it of a local variety, but some brought from Hinganghat. Near Mahabaleshwar, several European vegetables, especially potatoes, grow freely,and to a great extent supply the Bombay market. In some of the hill villages which have a heavy rainfall, nachni (Eleusinecorocana) and vari (Panicum miliare) are raised on the kumari system, that is, by cutting down and burning brushwood and sowing the seeds in the ashes. This practice, formerly general, has, on account of the damage it does to the forests, been to a large extent prohibited

3.2. Natural Calamities

In 1520, mainly owing to military disturbances, the crops in the Deccan were destroyed, and a famine followed. In 1629-30, severe famine raged throughout the Deccan. The rains failed for two years, causing a great loss of life. According to local tradition, the famine of 1791-92 was the severest ever known. It seems to have come after a series of bad years, when the evils of scanty rainfall were aggravated by disturbances and war. The native governments granted large remissions of revenue, the export of grain was forbidden, and a sale price was fixed. Rice was brought from Bengal to Bombay.

4.1. Agriculture

The course of tillage follows the ordinary rule of the North-Western Provinces, consisting of the kharif or autumn harvest—chief staples, cotton, rice,bajra and joar; and the rabi or spring harvest, including wheat, barley, oats, vetch, and peas. Sugar-cane is grown in the low-lying lands, and Indian corn on ground capable of bearing two crops a year.

4.2. Natural Calamities

Shahjahanpur suffers from drought and famine, though its proximity to the hills sometimes saves it from the worst extremities to which neighbouring Districts are exposed. The great famine of 1783-84, though severely felt in Rohilkhand, did not press so heavily upon this Division as upon Agra and the south-west.

5.1. Agriculture

The soil of Sholapur is of three kinds, kali or black,barad or coarse grey, and tambdi or reddish. Except in the Barsi Sub-division,where black soil is the rule, and coarse grey is rare, most of the District is either grey or red. The black soil is almost confined to the banks of rivers and large streams.

Prices of produce, per maund 80 lbs.—wheat, 5s. 5d.; rice, best, 7s. 5 3/4d.; rice, common, 6s. 10 1/2 d.; bajra (Pennisetum typhoideum), 3s. 5 3/4 d.; joar, 3s. 4d.; gram, 3s. 10 3/4 d.; salt, 6s. 0 1/2d.; flour, 6s. 7 1/2d.; dal, split-peas, 4s. 3 1/2d.; ghi, £3, 12s. 6 3/4d.

5.2. Natural Calamities

About 1520, a great famine is said to have been caused by military hordes destroying and plundering the crops. The famine of 1791 was very severe, especially in the Karnatik, where the crops entirely failed. In the Deccan the yield was one-fourth to one-half the usual out-turn; but as thousands flocked from the Karnatik to the Deccan for food, the distress became very severe. During this famine, grain sold at 3 lbs. the shilling.